THE CRIMINAL-LAW NATURE OF CYBERSTALKING AS AN OFFENCE AGAINST PRIVACY: GAPS IN NATIONAL LEGISLATION AND A COMPARATIVE LEGAL ANALYSIS OF FOREIGN EXPERIENCE
Keywords:
cyberstalking, stalking, privacy, digital violence, administrative prejudice, protection order, digital restraining measures, doxxing, stalkerware, comparative legal analysis, digital evidence.Abstract
The article examines the criminal-law nature of cyberstalking committed by means of information and communication technologies, its objective and subjective elements, and the criteria distinguishing it from other offences against privacy. The study follows the IMRAD structure and applies formal-dogmatic, comparative-legal and systemic-structural methods. It summarises international standards (Article 34 of the Istanbul Convention, EU Directive 2024/1385) and the legal positions of the European Court of Human Rights in Volodina and Buturugă. The legislation of France, Italy, Kazakhstan and Russia is compared, with particular attention to Article 1151 of the Criminal Code of Kazakhstan (“Stalking”), introduced in 2025. The analysis identifies gaps in the legislation of Uzbekistan: the absence of a separate liability norm for stalking; the definition of stalking in the Law on Protection of Women from Harassment and Violence as conduct for which no liability is prescribed; the failure of the protection order to cover digital space; and the lack of a procedural methodology of proof. The article concludes with substantiated proposals to supplement the Criminal Code with Article 1414 and the Code of Administrative Responsibility with Article 463, to introduce digital prohibitions into the protection order, and to establish a uniform procedure for securing digital evidence.
References
O‘zbekiston Respublikasi Konstitutsiyasi (2023-yil 30-apreldagi umumxalq referendumida qabul qilingan tahriri) // Qonunchilik ma’lumotlari milliy bazasi. (Constitution of the Republic of Uzbekistan (as adopted by the national referendum on April 30, 2023) // National Database of Legislative Information.) URL: https://lex.uz/docs/-6445145
O‘zbekiston Respublikasining Jinoyat kodeksi // Qonunchilik ma’lumotlari milliy bazasi. (Criminal Code of the Republic of Uzbekistan // National Database of Legislative Information.) URL: https://lex.uz/docs/-111453
O‘zbekiston Respublikasining Ma’muriy javobgarlik to‘g‘risidagi kodeksi // Qonunchilik ma’lumotlari milliy bazasi. (Code of the Republic of Uzbekistan on Administrative Responsibility // National Database of Legislative Information.) URL: https://lex.uz/docs/-97664
O‘zbekiston Respublikasining 2019-yil 2-sentyabrdagi O‘RQ-561-sonli “Xotin-qizlarni tazyiq va zo‘ravonlikdan himoya qilish to‘g‘risida”gi Qonuni. (Law of the Republic of Uzbekistan dated September 2, 2019 No. О‘RQ-561 “On Protection of Women from Harassment and Violence”) URL: https://lex.uz/docs/-4494709
O‘zbekiston Respublikasining 2023-yil 11-apreldagi O‘RQ-829-sonli Qonuni // Qonunchilik ma’lumotlari milliy bazasi, 12.04.2023-y., 03/23/829/0208-son. (Law of the Republic of Uzbekistan dated April 11, 2023 No. О‘RQ-829 // National Database of Legislative Information, 12.04.2023, No. 03/23/829/0208.) URL: https://lex.uz/docs/-6430272
O‘zbekiston Respublikasi Vazirlar Mahkamasining 2020-yil 4-yanvardagi 3-sonli qarori bilan tasdiqlangan Tazyiq va zo‘ravonlikdan jabrlangan xotin-qizlarga himoya orderini berish, ijrosini ta’minlash va monitoring olib borish to‘g‘risidagi nizom. (The Regulation on the issuance, enforcement and monitoring of protection orders for women victims of oppression and violence, approved by the Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Uzbekistan No. 3 dated January 4, 2020.) URL: https://lex.uz/docs/-4676892
Rustambayev M.X. O‘zbekiston Respublikasi jinoyat huquqi kursi. 3-tom. Maxsus qism. Shaxsga qarshi jinoyatlar. Tinchlik va xavfsizlikka qarshi jinoyatlar: Darslik. 2-nashr. – T.: O‘zbekiston Respublikasi Milliy gvardiyasi Harbiy-texnik instituti, 2018. – 412 b. (Rustambayev M.Kh. Criminal law course of the Republic of Uzbekistan. Volume 3. Special part. Crimes against the person. Crimes against peace and security: Textbook. 2nd edition. – T.: Military-technical institute of the National Guard of the Republic of Uzbekistan, 2018. – 412 p.)
Rustambayev M.X. O‘zbekiston Respublikasining Jinoyat kodeksiga sharhlar. Maxsus qism. 2-tom. – T.: “Yuridik adabiyotlar publish”, 2021. (Rustambayev M.Kh. Comments to the Criminal Code of the Republic of Uzbekistan. Special part. Volume 2. – T.: “Legal Literature Publishing”, 2021)
Otajonov A.A. Shaxsga qarshi jinoyatlar: O‘quv qo‘llanma. – T.: TDYU nashriyoti, 2024 (Rustambayev M.Kh. Comments to the Criminal Code of the Republic of Uzbekistan. Special part. Volume 2. – T.: “Legal Literature Publishing”, 2021).
Abdurasulova Q.R., Zakirova A.G., Ismoilov I. va boshq. Kriminologiya: Darslik. – T.: O‘zbekiston Respublikasi IIV Akademiyasi, 2023 (Abdurasulova Q.R., Zakirova A.G., Ismoilov I. et al. Criminology: Textbook. – T.: Academy of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Republic of Uzbekistan, 2023).
Ismoilov I. va boshq. Kiberjinoyatchilikka qarshi kurashish: Monografiya. – T., 2024 (Ismoilov I. et al. Combating cybercrime: Monograph. – T., 2024).
Kulmatov Sh.A., Sa’dullayev G‘.A. Shaxsning axborot xavfsizligini jinoyat-huquqiy muhofaza qilish bo‘yicha xorijiy davlatlar tajribasi // Kriminologiya. – T.: O‘zbekiston Respublikasi Kriminologiya tadqiqot instituti, 2025. – № 1. (Kulmatov Sh.A., Sa’dullayev G.A. Experience of foreign countries in criminal and legal protection of information security of the person // Criminology. – T.: Research Institute of Criminology of the Republic of Uzbekistan, 2025. – No. 1)
Рахметов С.М. Уголовная ответственность за сталкинг // Институт законодательства и правовой информации Республики Казахстан. – 2025. (Rakhmetov S.M. Criminal Liability for Stalking // Institute of Legislation and Legal Information of the Republic of Kazakhstan. – 2025.) URL: https://prg.kz/document/?doc_id=35517014
Уголовный кодекс Республики Казахстан от 3 июля 2014 года № 226-V (ст. 115-1, ст. 147). (Criminal Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan dated July 3, 2014 No. 226-V (Article 115-1, Article 147)) URL: https://adilet.zan.kz/rus/docs/K1400000226
Закон Республики Казахстан от 16 июля 2025 года № 210-VIII «О внесении изменений и дополнений в некоторые законодательные акты Республики Казахстан по вопросам оптимизации уголовного законодательства». (Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan dated July 16, 2025 No. 210-VIII "On Amendments and Additions to Certain Legislative Acts of the Republic of Kazakhstan on Issues of Optimization of Criminal Legislation")
Уголовный кодекс Российской Федерации от 13.06.1996 № 63-ФЗ // Собрание законодательства РФ. – 1996. – № 25. – Ст. 2954 (Criminal Code of the Russian Federation dated June 13, 1996 No. 63-FZ // Collection of Legislation of the Russian Federation. – 1996. – No. 25. – Art. 2954).
Проект федерального закона «О противодействии навязчивому преследованию», внесён в Государственную Думу 04.02.2026 (Draft federal law "On combating persistent stalking", submitted to the State Duma on February 4, 2026).
Code pénal de la République française, art. 222-33-2-2. URL: https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr
Loi n° 2018-703 du 3 août 2018 renforçant la lutte contre les violences sexuelles et sexistes // JORF n° 0179, 05.08.2018.
Codice penale italiano, art. 612-bis (D.L. 23 febbraio 2009, n. 11, conv. L. 23 aprile 2009, n. 38; L. 19 luglio 2019, n. 69).
Council of Europe Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence (CETS No. 210). – Istanbul, 11.V.2011.
Directive (EU) 2024/1385 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 14 May 2024 on combating violence against women and domestic violence // OJ L, 2024/1385, 24.5.2024.
Volodina v. Russia (No. 2), no. 40419/19, ECtHR, 14 September 2021. URL: https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-211794
Buturugă v. Romania, no. 56867/15, ECtHR, 11 February 2020.
United Nations Convention against Cybercrime (A/RES/79/243, 24 December 2024). URL: https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/cybercrime/convention/home.html
Bocij P. Cyberstalking: Harassment in the Internet Age and How to Protect Your Family. – Westport (CT): Praeger, 2004.
Floridi L. (ed.) The Onlife Manifesto: Being Human in a Hyperconnected Era. – Cham: Springer, 2015.
